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Electrical Power Systems Wadhwa Pdf 14
Electrical Power Systems Wadhwa Pdf 14 https://bytlly.com/2tfyBa
This may seem like wishful thinking, but consider how far we've come. The majority of people in Asia and Africa now have electrical power, refrigeration, and television. Even the poor have mobile phones. Two hundred years ago, kings and queens didn't have these luxuries. Yes, there is still dire poverty, but there is also hope.
Alfredo Zolezzi, of Advanced Innovation Center in Chile, had spent the early part of his career creating products for the oil industry. He had achieved great success as an entrepreneur by developing technology that enhanced the recovery of oil from abandoned oil wells using high-frequency, high-powered ultrasound waves. He had ideas for new technologies that could reduce the cost of refining heavy oil as well as its viscosity and sulfur content. Zolezzi likely could have made billions by perfecting these.
Zolezzi and his team spent 18 months developing a system that converts water into a plasma state through a high-intensity electrical field and eliminates microbiological content through electroporation, oxidation, ionization, UV and IR radiation and shockwaves.
Consider that when Ronald Reagan took office in 1980, average retail electricity costs in the United States were around 5 cents a kilowatt hour (in today's dollars). Electricity produced from wind power, on the other hand, cost around ten times more, at 50 cents a kilowatt hour. And electricity from solar power cost 30 times more, at around $1.50 per kilowatt hour.
The first solar photovoltaic panel built by Bell Labs in 1954 cost $1,000 per watt of power it could produce (Chapin et al., 1954). In 2008, modules used in solar arrays cost $3.49 per watt; by 2018, they cost 40 cents per watt (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2018). According to a pattern known as Swanson's Law, the price of solar photovoltaic modules tends to fall by 20% for every doubling of cumulative shipped volume. The full price of solar electricity (including land, labor to deploy the solar panels, and other equipment required) falls by about 15% with every doubling. In actuality, even this trend is accelerating: Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates that for every doubling of cumulative manufactured capacity, the cost of PV modules now declines by 28%.
It isn't just solar production that is advancing at a rapid rate, and solar will not be our only source of clean energy: there are also technologies to harness wind, biomass, thermal, tidal, and waste-breakdown energy, and research projects all over the world are working on improving their efficiency and effectiveness. Wind energy's price became competitive with the cost of energy from new coal-burning power plants in the United States in 2016, according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance, and prices have been continuing to fall (Henbest et al., 2016). Unsubsidized wind-energy contracts were signed at 2 cents per kWh in Mexico and Brazil in late 2017 and early 2018 (Vanessa, 2018).
The advances are exceeding expectations. In a study published in Nature Climate Change, Bjorn Nykvist and Mans Nilsson, of the Stockholm Environment Institute, documented that, from 2007 to 2011 average battery costs for battery-powered electric vehicles fell by about 14% a year (Nykvist and Nilsson, 2015). This decline put battery costs in 2016 right around the level that the International Energy Agency predicted they would reach in 2020. Electric vehicles are fast reaching the point at which they will cost substantially less to operate, from cradle to grave, than gasoline-fueled ones. And the same technology that is used for car batteries can be used for homes and businesses to store solar energy.
The plummeting cost of photovoltaic panels, along with the decline in the prices of light-emitting diodes (another semiconductor product), has brought light to more than 20 million Africans in the past decade. The World Bank's Lighting Africa program is doubling sales of approved devices each year (World Bank, 2018). Solar-powered LED lamps with included battery storage sell for $8 (Economist, 2012). That's still a lot of money for the poorest to afford, but it's within reach.
Aside from its effect on lighting, distributed micro-generation in Africa will also allow cheaper charging of cell phones. This is, believe it or not, a major expense for many Africans who lack sources of electrical energy: they pay dearly for electricity at kiosks. By reducing the cost of phone ownership and making voice and data communication cheaper, low-cost electricity boosts a key service that lifts people out of poverty and improves their lives. Information is power: to get the information, you need the power. Within a decade, we should see 50% penetration of solar panels into Africa and total penetration of LEDs or close access to cheap electricity for running small household appliances or charging phones.
Nearly free energy and water will be amongst the biggest boosts to autonomy that humans have enjoyed in history. Energy and water are the key to everything that offers us a more comfortable life. Energy keeps us warm, powers our vehicles, lights our homes, powers our communications systems, and much more. Inexpensive energy will also unlock an endless supply of fresh water and allow us to grow more food.
An overhead power line is a structure used in electric power transmission and distribution to transmit electrical energy across large distances. It consists of one or more uninsulated electrical cables (commonly multiples of three for three-phase power) suspended by towers or poles.
Towers for support of the lines are made of wood either grown or laminated, steel or aluminum (either lattice structures or tubular poles), concrete, and occasionally reinforced plastics. The bare wire conductors on the line are generally made of aluminum (either plain or reinforced with steel or composite materials such as carbon and glass fiber), though some copper wires are used in medium-voltage distribution and low-voltage connections to customer premises. A major goal of overhead power line design is to maintain adequate clearance between energized conductors and the ground so as to prevent dangerous contact with the line, and to provide reliable support for the conductors, resilience to storms, ice loads, earthquakes and other potential damage causes.[1] Today overhead lines are routinely operated at voltages exceeding 765,000 volts between conductors.
A large transmission line project may have several types of towers, with \"tangent\" (\"suspension\" or \"line\" towers, UK) towers intended for most positions and more heavily constructed towers used for turning the line through an angle, dead-ending (terminating) a line, or for important river or road crossings. Depending on the design criteria for a particular line, semi-flexible type structures may rely on the weight of the conductors to be balanced on both sides of each tower. More rigid structures may be intended to remain standing even if one or more conductors is broken. Such structures may be installed at intervals in power lines to limit the scale of cascading tower failures.[1]
A double-circuit transmission line has two circuits. For three-phase systems, each tower supports and insulates six conductors. Single phase AC-power lines as used for traction current have four conductors for two circuits. Usually both circuits operate at the same voltage.
In some countries, such as Germany, most power lines with voltages above 100 kV are implemented as double, quadruple or in rare cases even hextuple power line as rights of way are rare. Sometimes all conductors are installed with the erection of the pylons; often some circuits are installed later. A disadvantage of double circuit transmission lines is that maintenance can be difficult, as either work in close proximity of high voltage or switch-off of two circuits is required. In case of failure, both systems can be affected.
At the end of the 19th century, the limited electrical strength of telegraph-style pin insulators limited the voltage to no more than 69,000 volts. Up to about 33 kV (69 kV in North America) both types are commonly used.[1] At higher voltages only suspension-type insulators are common for overhead conductors.
While larger conductors lose less energy because of their lower electrical resistance, they cost more than smaller conductors. An optimization rule called Kelvin's Law states that the optimum size of conductor for a line is found when the cost of the energy wasted in a smaller conductor is equal to the annual interest paid on that additional cost of the line construction for a larger conductor. The optimization problem is made more complex by additional factors such as varying annual load, varying cost of installation, and the discrete sizes of cable that are commonly made.[1]
Since a conductor is a flexible object with uniform weight per unit length, the shape of a conductor hanging between two towers approximates that of a catenary. The sag of the conductor (vertical distance between the highest and lowest point of the curve) varies depending on the temperature and additional load such as ice cover. A minimum overhead clearance must be maintained for safety. Since the length of the conductor increases with increasing heat produced by the current through it, it is sometimes possible to increase the power handling capacity (uprate) by changing the conductors for a type with a lower coefficient of thermal expansion or a higher allowable operating temperature.
For transmission of power across long distances, high voltage transmission is employed. Transmission higher than 132 kV poses the problem of corona discharge, which causes significant power loss and interference with communication circuits. To reduce this corona effect, it is preferable to use more than one conductor per phase, or bundled conductors.[15] In addition to reducing corona, audible and radio noise (and associated electrical losses), bundled conductors also increase the amount of current that can be carried compared to a single conductor of equal aluminum content due to the skin effect (for AC lines).[16] 153554b96e